A critical evaluation on two theories of aggression

A critical evaluation on two theories of aggression Aggression is as a form of anti social behaviour, showing a lack of emotional concern for the welfare of others, as described by Baron and Richardson (1994). It is a cultural, cognitive process as well as a biological response, affecting every human being. Furthermore, it appears in many forms, verbal, physical, symbolic or injurious with the environment, personal beliefs and individuals society mediating its nature. In society, you will find some people more aggressive compared to others, with the levels varying when in different social situations. Some environments provoke aggression in people much more regularly, than others do. Yet such situations do not give rise to the same degree of aggressive behaviour in every person. There are two main social psychological theories that proposed to explain the nature and application of aggression, the Social Learning Theory and the Deindividuation Theory. The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing and modelling the behaviours, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. The theory suggests that for an individual to learn new behaviours this can only occur through direct experience. In the book, Social Learning Theory, Bandura (1977) states: Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behaviour is learned observationally through modelling: from observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviours are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action. Bandura argued that individuals, most likely children, learn aggressive responses from observing others in different social influences, i.e. role models in real life situations, their surroundings and the media. He also mentioned, individuals believing aggression produces reinforcements. Siegel (1992) who suggested that these reinforcements could be gaining financial rewards, a rise in self-esteem or receiving praise from other people supports this. Skinner (1953) proposed that learning occurs through reinforcement. Vicarious reinforcement occurs when an individual observes the consequences of aggressive behaviour as being rewarding, for example a person achieving what they want through aggressive behaviour. If a child is to see this happening in a school playground, whereby a bully gets their way for instance, the child may become to think of such behaviour as appropriate and therefore worth repeating. Bandura (1986) went on to suggest that for social learning to take place, the child had to form mental representations of certain events from their social environment to see possible rewards or punishments for the aggressive behaviour, alongside observational learning. The Bobo doll studies by Bandura, demonstrated how children learn and imitate aggressive behaviours they have witnessed in other people. The young participants observed an adult acting violently towards a Bobo doll and when the children received permission to play in a room with the Bobo doll, they began to imitate the aggression they had previously observed. Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning. The first model involves an actual individual demonstrating a particular behaviour. The second model includes descriptions and explanations of any certain behaviour. The third model involves real or fake role models acting out behaviours in books, films, TV programs or web media. Observational learning, also known as modelling consists of four phases, influenced by the observers behaviour (Bandura, 1977). The first is where the individual pays attention and perceives the most important aspects of the models behaviour by observation. Therefore, a child would need to attend to the role models actions or sayings (Allen Santrock, 1993). For example, children exposed to aggressive behaviour within the home and by watching the consequences, slowly associate such behaviour as effective conduct. Hence, children learn aggressive responses largely through observation. The second stage of observational learning is the coding of this behaviour into memory, also known as retention, for the information to be retrievable when an appropriate situation arises. This is where mental representations form, including events from the individuals social environment. The child must be able to distinguish possible rewards or punishments expected in future outcomes, which is vital in observational learning. In the Bobo doll experiment, the children aggressively beat the doll because this information was stored in their memory. The third process is rehearsing this acquired modelled behaviour, in conjunction with possessing the physical capabilities of the behaviour observed. If a child gains rewards i.e. appraisal, for their aggressive behaviour, they are more likely to repeat that same behaviour regularly. This is direct reinforcement and allows for the improvement of the behaviour. Moreover, individuals are more likely to repeat a modelled behaviour if the model is a role model or similar to them. Examples include parents or people of the same age group or race. Bandura (1976) proposed that members of the family were most influential in reinforcing aggressive behaviour in children, as they are likely to imitate them when they are older. The final stage involves the individual being motivated to successfully repeat and reinforce this modelled behaviour with the expectation of receiving rewards. Additionally, the individual will gradually gain confidence in their will to carry out aggressive behaviours, thu s self -efficacy expectancies are developed. The second theory of deindividuation, originates from Gustave Le Bons crowd theory (1895). In the book The Crowd, he describes how an individual within the crowd is psychologically altered. He state, Within the crowd, the collective mind of the group takes possession of the individual. As a result, a member of the crowd then becomes irrational. The individual submerged in the crowd loses self-control and becomes a mindless puppet, sometimes controlled by the crowds leader. Hence, they are capable of performing any impulsive and emotionally charged act, however undesirable or regressive to society. Festinger, Pepitone and Newcomb (1952) defined deindividuation as a state of affairs in a group where members do not pay attention to other individuals qua individuals and, correspondingly, the members do not feel they are being singled out by others. Festinger believed that when one becomes deindividuated, he or she merges their identity with that of the group and therefore becomes anonymo us. As a result of being unidentifiable in a large group, this has the psychological outcome of reducing individuals inner restraints, and increasing deviant behaviour that is normally avoided. The causes of deindividuation were extended from anonymity in groups to other factors, such as reduction in responsibility, arousal and altered consciousness influenced by drugs or alcohol (Zimbardo, 1969). In todays society especially, this is evident, as aggression seems to be the result of reduced inhibitions amongst individuals due to binge drinking, with excessive alcohol intake arousing aggressive acts such as fighting in a nightclub. Later versions of the theory focus on the psychological process of reduced private self-awareness as the key element of deindividuation, i.e. the individuals attitudes and norms (Prentice-Dunn and Rogers, 1982). In their study, they induced a sense of reduced self-awareness by continuously instructing participants to focus their attention outwards. Conditions for external attention cues included sitting in a dimly lit room with loud music playing, verbal interaction and stimulating video games to play, to increase deindividuation amongst the participants. In the controlled condition, participants were required to focus on internal attention, through no interaction and sitting in silence. The findings showed that when required to administer electric shocks to confederates, deindividuated participants that focused on external attention cues, produced higher aggressive behaviour by delivering shocks that were more painful, than the control group. This is because the experimental group w as made to ignore their own beliefs and self-identity, when their attention focussed on other aspects such as loud music and video games. In turn, this supports the idea that becoming less self aware, rather than just anonymity in a group, leads to deindividuation having the effect of producing aggression. Empirical support for the deindividuation theory is minimal. Zimbardo (1969) conducted a study to demonstrate the effects of deindividuation on aggression. Some of the female participants used wore oversized lab coats and hoods, and sat in a dimly lit room; increasing anonymity. In contrast, those in the control group wore normal clothes, nametags and were placed in a bright room, making them easily identifiable. The participants task was to shock a confederate and findings suggested that anonymous participants shocked longer and therefore more painfully than identifiable participants did. This gives support to the theory, as the study suggests that deindividuation or anonymity played a huge role, because when one is appearing as anonymous, they are likely to act in an aggressive approach than they would if their identity was easily available. Other research to support the deindividuation theory (Deiner et al., 1976) showed that American children who wore halloween costumes that hid their identities stole more sweets and money than those who wore costumes where they remained identifiable. The Stanford Prison Experiment by Haney et al. (1973) illustrated how college students assigned to act out the role of guards in a mock prison, behaved very aggressively in the cruelty they showed towards those assigned to the role of prisoners. This is largely due to the guards wearing mirrored glasses, thus rendering them anonymous, as their eyes were not visible to the prisoners. The brutality posed by the guards can be explained in terms of social norms. The guards only did what they thought was expected of them, although the state of deindividuation did cause them to ignore personal beliefs and perform the expected aggressive behaviour. This is one criticism of the study, as it did not show how real guards actually behave. Hence, the findings may have no real-life validity with the possibility of demand characteristics coming into play. In contrast, Bandura et al., (1961) were successful in showing that children learn aggressive behaviour through observation, which is reinforced by rewards and avoided by punishment (1962). A major strength of the Bobo doll studies is high control achieved by the use of laboratories, which produced sufficient applicable results. However, a problem with this is that the studies hold no ecological validity because of where and the manner in which they were carried out. In addition, it is possible to argue that the children also reacted aggressively to the Bobo doll as they were responding to demand characteristics. The children may have known what they had to do for the experiment. Another limitation is that the Bobo doll is fictional as was unable to fight back which a real person would have done; hence, this could also have influenced the childrens behaviour. Although the Bobo doll experiment shows that for an individual to express aggressive behaviours, observational learning has to take place, individuals may not always display such behaviour due to social constraints, or fear of receiving punishment. This means that even if an individual has learnt of an aggressive behaviour, he or she will not necessarily act it out, especially if perceived to be socially undesirable. Nonetheless, if the opportunity arises where they can demonstrate the behaviour without being punished for it, such as when they are deindividuated, then it is possible that they will behave aggressively. The social learning theory places great emphasis on individuals, especially children, imitating observed behaviour from watching others individually, the environment, and the mass media. However, the biological approach would argue that a persons state of biology is not taken into account within the Social Learning Theory. Moreover, it ignores individual genetic differences (Jeffery, 1985). For example, if an individual were to observe a brutal killing, they will respond differently when compared to someone else. Biological theorists would suggest that, heart rate and blood pressure would possibly rise, as a response made by the autonomic nervous system when in this particular circumstance. Hence, the response or behaviour acquired is genetically inherited to some extent. In addition, other research has shown increased aggressive behaviour to be associated with testosterone (Kalat, 1998). This hormone is higher in males, which may explain higher aggression in males than in females. There is still some doubt in establishing the effects of violent television on childrens aggression. Although, some studies have reported that there is no link between the two, and that aggression viewed on television is not always related to aggressive behaviour. For instance, one study had findings to suggest that juvenile boys, who regularly watched non-violent television shows, were more likely to express aggressive behaviour than those who witnessed the violent programs. This is because watching violent shows enabled the viewer to use the media as a way of relieving their own inner inhibitions or aggressive thoughts and ideas (Feshback Singer, 1971). As a result, the individual is less likely to be aggressive than if they had watched non-violent television. In addition to this, there is a theory that suggests; a way to reduce aggressive behaviour is by viewing violent television programs, known as the Catharsis effect (Gerbner.G, Gross.L, and Melody.W.H). As television is highl y influential, then positive and non-aggressive programs can aid in reducing aggression among viewers. Cooke (1993) believed that positive and kind-hearted television shows should encourage viewers to be more courteous to one another, if aggression in people is triggered by violent television. Therefore, the media can serve as a prevention method if individuals focus solely on the positive aspects, or use violent media to channel their own personal aggressive inhibitions. In comparison, one likely reason for the minimal support for the deindividuation concept is that the theory, which is based on Le Bons analysis of the crowd, is too simplified. According to Le Bon, collective behaviour is always irrational i.e. the individual in the crowd loses cognitive control. Researchers argue that deindividuation settings do not account for a loss of self-identity. Instead, they alter a person from an individual identity to a collective identity as a member of the group. Therefore, deindividuation leads to individuals conforming to the group norms. A meta-analysis of sixty studies on deindividuation conducted gave no results suggesting that deindividuation is the cause for increased anti-normative and disinhibited behaviour. Instead, individuals under anonymity complied more rather than less strongly with situational norms (Postmes and Spears, 1998). Overall, aggression is extremely difficult to define as well as investigate as not one theory can be used to explain it fully, even though it affects our every day-to-day life, either personally or through observation. The difficulty is when trying to measure and control this behaviour because it is quite impossible to reproduce aggression in a laboratory to bring about results and findings that fully apply to real life situations. However, these two theories by Bandura and Zimbardo have tried in their attempt to explain aggression. One advantage with the Social learning theory is that not only can it be applied to explaining childrens behaviour, adults too. Philips (1896) found that the daily rate of homicide in the US usually rose a week after a major boxing match. This suggests that the culprits may have been viewers imitating the aggressive behaviour they watched. Hence, social learning is evident in adults. In contrast, the deindividuation theory does not clearly state whether deindividuation occurs amongst young children as well. Instead, it focuses on mainly adults, which maybe another reason for the minimal empirical research to support the theory. Although the social learning theory was initially an explanation for aggression, it has recently been extended to explain other behaviours such as anorexia. Furthermore, the theory can explain differences between and within individuals, in terms of cultural v ariation, with one study showing the US to be highly violent compared to societies in Central Africa, which manage to live in harmony (Aronson, 1999). Differences within individuals are due to selective reinforcement; with people reacting differently as each individual will observe that aggression is rewarded in some cases and not others. Hence, people learn about behaviours differently along with the circumstances in which they are applicable, and so these differences should be a result of social learning. However, Banduras theory has its limitations because it does not suggest what leads people to aggress once they have witnessed aggressive behaviour. Thus, it does not explain the possibility of acting out a modelled behaviour for example, if an individual has been angered. Nevertheless, Dollard et al. (1939) who proposed the frustration -aggression theory, explored this. The theory suggests that frustration always leads to aggression and aggression is only a cause of frustration. When looking at the deindividuation theory, one study that both supports as well as criticises the theory, suggests that anonymity increases the possibility of an individual conforming to the social group norms. Participants were made anonymous by either wearing overalls and hoods similar to those of the racist Ku Klux Klan, or wearing nurses uniforms. Results showed that participants to deliver more shocks when dressed as the racist group, and fewer, as nurses (Johnson and Downing, 1979). Hence, this also showed that anonymity does not always lead to aggressive behaviour, instead individuals may simply be responding to the norms of the group and doing what is expected. One realistic approach to aggression is one that covers a number of explanations, from neuro-physiological and evolutionary ones to social-psychological theories. In conclusion, the social learning theory supported by extensive research compared to the deindividuation theory, has shown to conclusively illustrate that the acquisition and behavioural expression of aggression is socially influenced, and is therefore more successful in explaining this behaviour.

The Physics of the Sound Wave and its Effects on the Human Ear Essay

The Physics of the Sound Wave and its Effects on the Human Ear Could you imagine living in a world without sound? It would be enormously different from the world that we know. Our primary form of inter-human communication would be based on visual or tactile imagery. Our sense of perception would be changed. Telecommunication would be different. We would not have the pleasure of music or the soothing sounds of nature. Sound has had an immense impact on our world. This essay will explore the unseen world of sound waves and how humans perceive them. Generally, people hear sound waves traveling through air. These waves cannot be seen, but are heard or felt via vibration. Sound waves originate from vibrating objects and travel in longitudinal waves through mediums (such as a solid, a liquid, or a gaseous material). These types of waves are defined by the textbook as: â€Å"†¦wave[s] in which the vibrations of the medium are parallel to the direction the wave is moving.1† Figure 8.52 shows an excellent example of a tuning fork producing longitudinal waves, which are perceived as sound. It is apparent that as the prongs are struck, they move outward. As they move outward, the neighboring air molecules are compressed together creating what is called compression. The tuning fork prongs reverse the pressure as they move inward and cause a rarefaction (the opposite of a compression) in the neighboring air molecules. The process is repeated until the tuning fork returns to its resting state. As previously stated, sound waves can travel through various mediums. The universal formula to obtain the speed of a sound wave is:Speed=distance/time. â€Å"The faster which a sound wave travels, the more distance it will cover in the same period of tim... ...le that has an intensity of 10-3 W/m2 can be determined2: db = 10 log 10 ( 10-3/10-12 ) = 90-dB. Decibel levels from 0-80 dB are safe to the human ear. Prolonged exposure to sounds higher than that can result in hearing damage. With the factors of frequency and amplitude brought into relation of hearing, it is apparent that nothing would be understood without the concepts that can be referred to from physics. Physics enables the analysis of the human’s ability to understand sound waves. References: 1-Kirkpatrick, L.D. (2001). Physics A World View. (4 ed.) Philadelphia: Harcourt 2-Russell, K. (1997). Sound Waves. Retrieved: 4-30-03 From: www.umanitoba.ca/faculties/arts/linguistics/ressell/138/sec4/actoust/htm 3-Henderson, T. (1998). Sound Waves and the Eardrum. Retrieved: 4-30-03 From: Http://www.glenbrook.k12/gbssci/phys/mmedia/waves/edl.html 4

The Social Developmental Value of Theater Arts

Applied Theatre is an umbrella term used to describe theatre and drama based practices with the aim of social development. The topics can range from targets of community building, protest, cultural awareness and sensitivities, harm reduction, religion, health, socio-economic representation, and educational purposes. Within Applied Theatre, there are no set traditional theatrical methods but a preference towards innovative and interactive methods where actors often have the freedom to engage with the audience and where audiences shape the philosophy as well as the content of the piece. As once said by Augusto Boal, a famous Applied Theatre practitioner who spearheaded a creative arts movement called â€Å"Theatre of the Oppressed;’’ â€Å"Theatre is a form of knowledge; it should and can also be a means of transforming society. Theatre can help us build our futures, rather than just waiting for it’’ This philosophy is a statement of artistic humanitarianism where creative and performance arts reach the height of their power to create and inspire, as performance is combined with everyday people and represents individuals and their society rather than fulfilling a goal of entertaining, thrilling, and profit making. This is using theatre as an investment in the social economy. To look more in-depth at the educational value and social significance of Applied Theatre, major concepts of the field could be examined through three diverse applications. These applications will include culture, harm reduction, and protest. Culture From primitive story telling, to Shakespearean cultural-political representations of Elizabethan society; the performing arts has historically always been a part of most cultures. Nowadays where cultures are highly mosaic in nature and where we find ourselves in the midst of fusing and evolving identities, and an influence of masses of media and technology; the need for cultural identity is more crucial than ever. This is greatly apparent in the North American indigenous population that throughout history has suffered copious amounts of underrepresentation, abuse, and annihilation. Rooted in the 16th century European explorations, the Native eople of North America have always undergone ill treatment. The historical European desire to colonize and assimilate foreigners was carried out up until the end of the 20th century where indigenous peoples’ children were sent to concentration camp-style schools run primarily by the catholic church under rigid government policies concerning Natives which was referred to as â€Å"Indians affairs. ’’ The children were stripped of their language, culture, religion, and traditions and forced to behave in a foreign way. This caused domino effects amounting to Canada and America’s current situation where Native people continue to suffer from social disorders, and be at a high risk for alcoholism, drug-use, prostitution, poverty, and subjection to adoption and fostercare as well as a lack of community resources. In recent years, great efforts have been put in place to restore Native culture that was once outlawed. Traditionally their history was an oral tradition recorded through story telling. This was seen as a unique opportunity to apply theatre arts to a suffering population in hopes of gaining cultural identity and applied to the greater North American population to raise awareness and understanding towards Native people. In the Eastern Canadian province of Ontario in the small town of Manitowaning there is a theatre group called the De-ba-jeh-mu-jig. This name comes from the indigenous languages of Cree and Ojibway meaning â€Å"Story Tellers. The company is non-profit and community based and currently produces a number of performances including children’s performances and interactive theatre using their own unique creation/writing process and methodology with the purpose of representing and showcasing the local indigenous culture and engaging in home-grown solutions to their own challenges for cultural and social development. They’ve done numerous productions and tours of shows with unique titles such as â€Å"The Indian Affairs’’ and â €Å"New World Brave,† whose titles themselves exemplify the content of their aim. The productions often encompass the stories of their traditions, religion/spirituality, history, language, and survival and are often intertwined with modern day cultural challenges. The company has also done improvisation projects with topics such as careers and fetal alcohol syndrome as well as other outreach programs to foster artistic engagement in the community. The works of this company sum up the power of theatre arts in a culturally applied sense and continue to educate, inspire, and engage a generation as well as harmonize and restore a once lost people and their culture into modern society. Harm Reduction Harm reduction is a term, which refers to policy put in place to cut down the practice of human-behavioural activity that may produce harmful effects. This includes a range of topics including illegal, and risky/dangerous practices. For example, harm reduction public policy could be attributed to things such as Drugs including illegal substances, needles, alcohol related issues, Tobacco, and drug crime, as well as Sex including topics such as safe sex, STI’s, HIV, AIDS, prostitution, as well as more psychological and less intensive topics like mental health, self-harm, and bullying. By analyzing the works of Sponsored Arts For Education, known as S. A. F. E. , a Kenyan non-governmental organization with the mandate of delivering social change by addressing controversial topics. They primarily focus on social aspects, treatment and prevention of HIV/AIDS and safe sex and family planning, but also include topics such as peace, female circumsicion, and female rights/empowerment, water and health, prisoner outreach, environmental issues, Drug use, and LGBT topics. All of these outreach topics are delivered through creative mobile theatre performances targeting rural areas of Kenya where social stigma, the lack info technology and education are hindering people’s health and safety and contributing to the expanse of the aforementioned issues. S. A. F. E. , started by British actor Nick Reding, is a proactive charity whose philosophy states it’s belief that dance, music and theatre break down barriers and draw people in thus creating social change. In 2012 Coronation Street writer Damon Rochefort collaborated with S. A. F. E. with a vision that the dramatic effect of a soap opera in Britain could have the same effect anywhere with any culturally differing social circumstances. Soap operas play on issues and emotions that reflect real people’s lives in the cultural sense of the viewers, and they perform long running dramatized renditions that offer a real insight into each characters’ lives. Thus, they are drawing the viewers into long time subscription and allowing them to experience a sense of escape. During the collaboration, the cast of Coronation Street visited Kenya to create a unique soap style piece of drama that plays on life changing messages in the sense of local cultural and the issues and struggles that face their society. The team visited Bangala, a slum of 20 000 people, one of the nation of 1. 5 million HIV positive people’s hardest hit areas. Most people don’t know how to prevent the spreading of the disease and usually don’t know their own status. There is a huge social stigma about HIV and families known to be positive are demonized and alienated. Infected mothers pass the virus to their children because there is a lack of knowledge about drugs for pregnant women that block the passing, and the children face barriers to education and freedom because they too are infected. The virus continues to be spread because of stigma, ignorance, and unavailability of condoms. The cast of Coronation street had to use these issues to train Kenyan actors and collaborate to put on a rehearsed non scripted (improvised) production. The finished product was a story about two local families who have to come to terms with a series of events consisting of whatever life threw at them (in a local context) including relationships, rape, child prostitution, family planning, female courage, health, and violence. They portrayed positive ways of dealing with and preventing these things and used comedic effect to break stigma and engage the audience and set them at ease. The production was done with the use of a mobile theatre that consists of a large vehicle, which has been fitted to store a stage, which retracts out of the side of the vehicle forming a large raised platform, and fitted with speakers. This is a very pure and original form of theatre, which is intimate and innovative. A perfect fit for the unique and original concept of applied theatre. Analyzing the creation a such performance, it is apparent that copious attention to detail is necessary to create the right effect. Dealing with such serious opics it is important to know how to combine the right amount of comedy with the right amount of seriousness. In utilizing this form of theatre correctly it is possible to realize the full potential of the arts and reduce harm to the masses. After the Coronation Street/S. M. A. R. T. show, counseling services and resources were available such as a condom tent and family planning tutorials. After a one year tour of one S. M. A. R. T. applied theat re tour in Kenya, an audience of 80 000 people would have viewed the show and 18 000 would have learned their HIV status as a result. Protest The early formations of applied theatre are apparent through the theatrical practices of classical drama and the politically motivated arts movements of 18 and 19th century Europe. Most notably, the French Revolution had a largely politically fuelled theatre scene. During France’s period of the ‘’Ancien Regime’’ where France was under monarchial rule, theatre was highly regulated by the monarchy and only three approved theatres existed in France. These displayed works that were highly censored and apolitical. After the fall of the monarchy, there was more freedom, which allowed for more theatres to be put up and a more vivid dramatic arts scene emerged, but continued to be censored. In 1791 a law was passed called the Chapelier Law which gave theatres the right to operate free from governmental oversight. Immediately following this the number of theatres boomed and theatre began to be seen as an arena of new French ideology and a pillar in the community. This period, known as the Enlightenment, fifty three new theatres opened and were constructed with vast audience space whilst new plays were constantly being written. There was an area of the theatre known as the ‘Parterre’ where were the working class would react and interact with their emotions towards what was being portrayed on stage quickly became a melting pot of political ideology and national identity and emotion. During the Enlightenment, plays were so politically fueled that French newspapers would criticize plays which lacked political representation saying that they were anti-revolutionary and a distraction from the pressing issues of society. For example, a famous and elaborate dramatic opera by Paisielo performed in Paris and was condemned, publicly petitioned against and reported to the National Assembly because of the general opinion of it being sensuous blasphemy with no significance or respect towards political fuel, national identity or democratic flow of interest. In fact, the importance of political theatre was so grave that the law even stated that any theatre that ‘’performs works attempting to undermine public spirit and to revive the shameful superstition of royalty will be closed, and the directors will e arrested and punished to the full extent of the law. ’’ This type of theatre was labeled as ‘Pieces de circonstance’ or more literally translated, Pieces representing the circumstances. Plays such as ‘’The Fall of Toulon’’ by benoit Picard used a story line based on true events and speeches by notable French figures such as Robespierre, whils t incorporating fuel for national pride, the national anthem, and a portrayal of overcoming struggle, freedom of expression, and comedy to make a mockery of the plight once faced in regards to the old monarchial system. These innovative pieces gave the ever so changing nation pride, courage, and esteem to address issues facing the build of their new society, as well as a safe place to discuss political feelings and national identity. The role played by the more scripted and political classical French drama from the Enlightenment period of the French Revolution, was pivotal in producing direct effects upon society and can be used as inspiration for modern theatre applied to modern day struggles. Now with an added creativity and freedom, with aspects such as improvisation, and deliberate engagement with the audience, the ower to be mobile, and more insight to the diversity of issues that perturb the human race, theatre can be used as a perfect tool for engaging a society in forms of protest and movements in a peaceful and democratic manner. These early works gave way for modern practitioners to fulfill their own philosophies using theater as a catalyst in an ongoing protest for change. Augosto Boal, a Brazilian applied theatre pioneer spent a lifetime producing social change via dramatic arts. In his early life he felt the need for the underclass of his nation to up rise through peaceful means. He recognized the social iniquities and racial divide facing them. He felt that his own social class, race, and social status impeded the progression of a generation of people subjected to life in the slums of his city. His philosophy was that change came from within the target group rather than an imposition of change upon them. His slogan was a quote from William Shakespeare’s Hamlet stating that ‘’theatre is like a mirror that reflects our virtues and defects equally. ’’ Boal went on to start the Centre for Theatre of the Oppressed. This organization had as an objective the study, discussion, and expression of social issues. They used this to protest and up-rise against diverse issues such as citizenship, culture, and oppressive policy all by means of theatricality. The works of Boal through the Centre for Theatre of the Oppressed even gained a feat of having a law passed protecting crime victims and witnesses in Brazil, a valuable asset in the society of the oppressed people represented by the organization. Boal wrote many books including Theatre for the Oppressed, Games for Actors and Non Actors, The Rainbow of Desire: The Bo al Method of Theatre and Therapy, and Legislative Theatre. In Games for Actors and Non Actors, Boal outlined a nearly every dramatic exercised he applied during his career. From this stemmed new kinds of innovative theatre such as the following: Newspaper Theatre is a technical system allowing an audience to make use of local news articles and other non-dramatic pieces of literatre, and apply them into becoming a theatrical scene. Legislative theatre is a form that provides an opportunity for local voters to voice and protest their opinions in dialogue with government and institution using theatrical methods. The formulation of a piece is created based on proposed laws and policies. The audience may join in as actors and express their views thus impacting the creation of the local policy. Forum Theatre is a highly interactive form of theatre where audience members could call upon a piece to pause, where mistreatment or oppression was evident in the storyline or amongst character interactions. Audience members would formulate solutions for a rational and preferred means of addressing and dealing with the subject. The audience shaped the course of which the piece would take. Invisible Theatre is the pursuit of an ambiguous performance in a location unsuspecting of a performance such as in a public setting. This tricked spectators into thinking that a real event was taking place but the theme would always address social issues. It is a means of getting a message across to an audience who may not normally be open to view a such performance. It also allowed for public interaction into the piece. Boal’s work went on to creating a practice called Drama Therapy based on the aforementioned principles. It is apparent that by drawing upon classical methods and applying dramatic aims into aims of social development; that theatre can be used as a catalyst for change in modern society. Innovation in theatrical forms are endless, and as long as creativity is used with enough insight into social needs, a powerful fusion is developed. Whether the goal is to educate to reduce harm in a developing country and within vulnerable communities, or to build a sense of community and culture, to gain political interest, or to revolutionize a nation, the power of the dramatic arts is an unparalleled tool where possibilities are endless. Task List 1) The topic for my research is the social developmental aspect of theatre. The aim is to look at the diversity in which theatre can be used as an applied tool. The research will analyse Applied Theatre methods, history, and applications. My reasoning for choosing this topic was because of a personal career specific interest. The only limitation was my inability to find live performances to gain a first hand experience as there were none in my area. I was also limited to choosing only a few possible applications of applied theatre as the lists are endless as it is a creative process rather than a set method. 2) My sources of info are listed in detail in the bibliography. I used books and Internet. Primary sources are sources of information that offer first hand knowledge of the subject. They are created during the time and within the direct context/environment of the subject. Secondary sources are continuations of primary sources, they are analysis, continuation, and interpretation of subjects, and events out of direct context/period. 3) I chose to use books mainly and internet to look more in depth at concepts discovered in my readings. I will acquire my books from the Central Vancouver Public Library where there is the largest collection of books in Canada as well as a wealth of resources. (I used the system to earch keywords such as: social change, applied theatre, theatre for change, political theatre, social drama, sociological drama, democratic drama, drama for change, theatre in the third world, humanitarian theatre. ) When using Internet I will verify sources prior to relying on their information. I will check the credibility of the authors and publicists. 4) Choose topic on the day asked by the instructor, find practical examples to broaden my perspective, select sources, gather notes and source details in a clear and concise method including brain tools such as mind maps and connections logs, analyse notes including primary and econdary information, choose a format for the final piece including the desired form of presentation, compose piece based on chosen format and information, proof read, edit, submit/present. 5) Do the research and write up project 6) Present project 7) Evaluation of Aims and Methods – Drawing on personal interests, my aims of showing the breadth of applications of theatre, its educational value, and its ability to impact society by bringing about social change, became very easy. I feel that the sources of my information applied directly to my aims and that breaking down my aim into three subcategories of culture, protest, and harm reduction- made for a more concise way of getting my point across. These three subcategories embodied the initial aim and each showed the educational value of theatre for that specific application. This happened through using practical examples, historical events, and practitioner profiling. My time table was effective as everything came together easily and on time. My time table was more of a checklist instead of a dated series of events. My sources were very clear and understandable, as well as verified for credibility. Looking at websites, I always checked the name of the author and searched them on google, as well as the date of their publication to get the most up to date examples. Also when looking at the study of Applied Theatre I found that referring to university prospectuses aided myself in personally understanding its researchable value.

ACT Writing Rubric Full Analysis and Essay Strategies

ACT Writing Rubric Full Analysis and Essay Strategies SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips What time is it? It's essay time! In this article, I'm going to get into the details of the newly transformed ACT Writing by discussing the ACT essay rubric and how the essay is graded based on that. You'll learn what each item on the rubric means for your essay writing and what you need to do to meet those requirements. feature image credit: A study in human nature, being an interpretation with character analysis chart of Hoffman’s master painting â€Å"Christ in the temple†; (1920) by CircaSassy, used under CC BY 2.0/Resized from original. ACT Essay Grading: The Basics If you've chosen to take the ACT Plus Writing, you'll have 40 minutes to write an essay (after completing the English, Math, Reading, and Science sections of the ACT, of course). Your essay will be evaluated by two graders, who score your essay from 1-6 on each of 4 domains, leading to scores out of 12 for each domain. Your Writing score is calculated by averaging your four domain scores, leading to a total ACT Writing score from 2-12. NOTE: From September 2015 to June 2016, ACT Writing scores were calculated by adding together your domain scores and scaling to a score of 1-36; the change to an averaged 2-12 ACT Writing score was announced June 28, 2016. The Complete ACT Grading Rubric Based on ACT, Inc’s stated grading criteria, I've gathered all the relevant essay-grading criteria into a chart. The information itself is available on the ACT's website, and there's more general information about each of the domains here. The columns in this rubric are titled as per the ACT’s own domain areas, with the addition of another category that I named ("Mastery Level"). ACT Essay Rubric - Scoring Guide Raw Score [Mastery Level] Ideas and Analysis Development and Support Organization Language Use 0 Blank, Off-Topic, Illegible, Not in English, or Void 1 demonstrate little or no skill in writing an argumentative essay. The writer fails to generate an argument that responds intelligibly to the task. The writer’s intentions are difficult to discern. Attempts at analysis are unclear or irrelevant. Ideas lack development, and claims lack support. Reasoning and illustration are unclear, incoherent, or largely absent. The response does not exhibit an organizational structure. There is little grouping of ideas. When present, transitional devices fail to connect ideas. The use of language fails to demonstrate skill in responding to the task. Word choice is imprecise and often difficult to comprehend. Sentence structures are often unclear. Stylistic and register choices are difficult to identify. Errors in grammar, usage, and mechanics are pervasive and often impede understanding. 2 demonstrate weak or inconsistent skill in writing an argumentative essay The writer generates an argument that weakly responds to multiple perspectives on the given issue. The argument’s thesis, if evident, reflects little clarity in thought and purpose. Attempts at analysis are incomplete, largely irrelevant, or consist primarily of restatement of the issue and its perspectives. Development of ideas and support for claims are weak, confused, or disjointed. Reasoning and illustration are inadequate, illogical, or circular, and fail to fully clarify the argument. The response exhibits a rudimentary organizational structure. Grouping of ideas is inconsistent and often unclear. Transitions between and within paragraphs are misleading or poorly formed. The use of language is inconsistent and often unclear. Word choice is rudimentary and frequently imprecise. Sentence structures are sometimes unclear. Stylistic and register choices, including voice and tone, are inconsistent and are not always appropriate for the rhetorical purpose. Distracting errors in grammar, usage, and mechanics are present, and they sometimes impede understanding. 3 demonstrate some developing skill in writing an argumentative essay The writer generates an argument that responds to multiple perspectives on the given issue. The argument’s thesis reflects some clarity in thought and purpose. The argument establishes a limited or tangential context for analysis of the issue and its perspectives. Analysis is simplistic or somewhat unclear. Development of ideas and support for claims are mostly relevant but are overly general or simplistic. Reasoning and illustration largely clarify the argument but may be somewhat repetitious or imprecise. The response exhibits a basic organizational structure. The response largely coheres, with most ideas logically grouped. Transitions between and within paragraphs sometimes clarify the relationships among ideas. The use of language is basic and only somewhat clear. Word choice is general and occasionally imprecise. Sentence structures are usually clear but show little variety. Stylistic and register choices, including voice and tone, are not always appropriate for the rhetorical purpose. Distracting errors in grammar, usage, and mechanics may be present, but they generally do not impede understanding. 4 demonstrate adequate skill in writing an argumentative essay The writer generates an argument that engages with multiple perspectives on the given issue. The argument’s thesis reflects clarity in thought and purpose. The argument establishes and employs a relevant context for analysis of the issue and its perspectives. The analysis recognizes implications, complexities and tensions, and/or underlying values and assumptions. Development of ideas and support for claims clarify meaning and purpose. Lines of clear reasoning and illustration adequately convey the significance of the argument. Qualifications and complications extend ideas and analysis. The response exhibits a clear organizational strategy. The overall shape of the response reflects an emergent controlling idea or purpose. Ideas are logically grouped and sequenced. Transitions between and within paragraphs clarify the relationships among ideas. The use of language conveys the argument with clarity. Word choice is adequate and sometimes precise. Sentence structures are clear and demonstrate some variety. Stylistic and register choices, including voice and tone, are appropriate for the rhetorical purpose. While errors in grammar, usage, and mechanics are present, they rarely impede understanding. 5 demonstrate well-developed skill in writing an argumentative essay The writer generates an argument that productively engages with multiple perspectives on the given issue. The argument’s thesis reflects precision in thought and purpose. The argument establishes and employs a thoughtful context for analysis of the issue and its perspectives. The analysis addresses implications, complexities and tensions, and/or underlying values and assumptions. Development of ideas and support for claims deepen understanding. A mostly integrated line of purposeful reasoning and illustration capably conveys the significance of the argument. Qualifications and complications enrich ideas and analysis. The response exhibits a productive organizational strategy. The response is mostly unified by a controlling idea or purpose, and a logical sequencing of ideas contributes to the effectiveness of the argument. Transitions between and within paragraphs consistently clarify the relationships among ideas. The use of language works in service of the argument. Word choice is precise. Sentence structures are clear and varied often. Stylistic and register choices, including voice and tone, are purposeful and productive. While minor errors in grammar, usage, and mechanics may be present, they do not impede understanding. 6 demonstrate effective skill in writing an argumentative essay The writer generates an argument that critically engages with multiple perspectives on the given issue. The argument’s thesis reflects nuance and precision in thought and purpose. The argument establishes and employs an insightful context for analysis of the issue and its perspectives. The analysis examines implications, complexities and tensions, and/or underlying values and assumptions. Development of ideas and support for claims deepen insight and broaden context. An integrated line of skillful reasoning and illustration effectively conveys the significance of the argument. Qualifications and complications enrich and bolster ideas and analysis. The response exhibits a skillful organizational strategy. The response is unified by a controlling idea or purpose, and a logical progression of ideas increases the effectiveness of the writer’s argument. Transitions between and within paragraphs strengthen the relationships among ideas. The use of language enhances the argument. Word choice is skillful and precise. Sentence structures are consistently varied and clear. Stylistic and register choices, including voice and tone, are strategic and effective. While a few minor errors in grammar, usage, and mechanics may be present, they do not impede understanding. ACT Writing Rubric: Item-by-Item Breakdown Whew. That rubric might be a little overwhelming - there's so much information to process! Below, I’ve broken down the essay rubric by domain, with examples of what a 3- and a 6-scoring essay might look like. Ideas and Analysis The Ideas and Analysis domain is the rubric area most intimately linked with the basic ACT essay task itself. Here's what the ACT website has to say about this domain: Scores in this domain reflect the ability to generate productive ideas and engage critically with multiple perspectives on the given issue. Competent writers understand the issue they are invited to address, the purpose for writing, and the audience. They generate ideas that are relevant to the situation. Based on this description, I've extracted the four key things you need to do in your essay to score well in the Ideas and Analysis domain. Choose a perspective on this issue and state it clearly. Evaluate how true (or untrue) each (of the three given) perspectives is Analyze each perspective. Compare the remaining two perspectives to the perspective you have chosen. There's no cool acronym, sorry. I guess a case could be made for "ACCE," but I wanted to list the points in the order of importance, so "CEAC" it is. Fortunately, the ACT Writing Test provides you with the three perspectives to analyze and choose from, which will save you some of the hassle of "generating productive ideas." In addition, "analyzing each perspective" does not mean that you need to argue from each of the points of view. Instead, you need to choose one perspective to argue as your own and explain how your point of view relates to the perspectives provided by evaluating how correct each perspective is and analyzing the implications of each perspective. Note: While it is technically allowable for you to come up with a fourth perspective as your own and to then discuss that point of view in relation to each of the three given perspectives, we do NOT recommend it. 40 minutes is already a pretty short time to discuss three different points of view in a thorough and coherent manner - discussing four is nigh-on impossible. To get deeper into what things fall in the Ideas and Analysis domain, I'll use a sample ACT Writing prompt and the three perspectives provided: Many of the goods and services we depend on daily are now supplied by intelligent, automated machines rather than human beings. Robots build cars and other goods on assembly lines, where once there were human workers. Many of our phone conversations are now conducted not with people but with sophisticated technologies. We can now buy goods at a variety of stores without the help of a human cashier. Automation is generally seen as a sign of progress, but what is lost when we replace humans with machines? Given the accelerating variety and prevalence of intelligent machines, it is worth examining the implications and meaning of their presence in our lives. Perspective One: What we lose with the replacement of people by machines is some part of our own humanity. Even our mundane daily encounters no longer require from us basic courtesy, respect, and tolerance for other people. Perspective Two: Machines are good at low-skill, repetitive jobs, and at high-speed, extremely precise jobs. In both cases they work better than humans. This efficiency leads to a more prosperous and progressive world for everyone. Perspective Three: Intelligent machines challenge our long-standing ideas about what humans are or can be. This is good because it pushes both humans and machines toward new, unimagined possibilities. First, in order to "state...your own perspective on the issue," you need to figure out what your point of view, or perspective, on this issue is going to be. For the sake of argument, let's say that you agree the most with the second perspective. A essay that scores a 3 in this domain might simply restate this perspective: I agree that machines are good at low-skill, repetitive jobs, and at high-speed, extremely precise jobs. In both cases they work better than humans. This efficiency leads to a more prosperous and progressive world for everyone. In contrast, an essay scoring a 6 in this domain would likely have a more complex point of view (with what the rubric calls "nuance and precision in thought and purpose"): Machines will never be able to replace humans entirely, as creativity is not something that can be mechanized. Because machines can perform delicate and repetitive tasks with precision, however, they are able to take over for humans with regards to low-skill, repetitive jobs and high-skill, extremely precise jobs. This then frees up humans to do what we do best - think, create, and move the world forward. Next, you need to evaluate how true/untrue each perspective is. Since you've already decided you agree with Perspective Two, you presumably think that perspective is true, which will save some work. A 3-scoring essay in this domain would likely be absolute, stating that Perspective Two is completely correct, while the other two perspectives are absolutely incorrect. By contrast, a 6-scoring essay in this domain would, again, show a more nuanced understanding: In the future, machines might lead us to lose our humanity; alternatively, machines might lead us to unimaginable pinnacles of achievement. I would argue, however, projecting possible futures does not make them true, and that the evidence we have at present supports the perspective that machines are, above all else, efficient and effective completing repetitive and precise tasks. To analyze the perspectives, you need to consider each aspect of each perspective. In the case of Perspective Two, this means you must discuss that machines are good at two types of jobs, that they’re better than humans at both types of jobs, and that their efficiency creates a better world. The analysis in a 3-scoring essay is usually "simplistic or somewhat unclear." In contrast, the analysis of a 6-scoring essay "examines implications, complexities and tensions, and/or underlying values and assumptions." Finally, you must compare the other two perspectives to your perspective throughout your essay, including in your intitial argument. Here's what a 3-scoring essay's argument would look like: I agree that machines are good at low-skill, repetitive jobs, and at high-speed, extremely precise jobs. In both cases they work better than humans. This efficiency leads to a more prosperous and progressive world for everyone. Machines do not cause us to lose our humanity or challenge our long-standing ideas about what humans are or can be. And here, in contrast, is what a 6-scoring essay's argument (that includes multiple perspectives) would look like: Machines will never be able to replace humans entirely, as creativity is not something that can be mechanized, which means that our humanity is safe. Because machines can perform delicate and repetitive tasks with precision, however, they are able to take over for humans with regards to low-skill, repetitive jobs and high-skill, extremely precise jobs. Rather than forcing us to challenge our ideas about what humans are or could be, machines simply allow us to BE, without distractions. This then frees up humans to do what we do best - think, create, and move the world forward. Again, to summarize what you need to do to score well in the Ideas and Analysis domain: Choose a perspective that you can support Evaluate how true/correct each perspective is Analyze the implications of each perspective Compare the other two perspectives to your own (with analysis and evaluation folded in). To score well on the ACT essay overall, however, it's not enough to just state your opinions about each part of the perspective; you need to actually back up your claims with evidence to develop your own point of view. This leads straight into the next domain: Development and Support. Development and Support Another important component of your essay is that you explain your thinking. While it's obviously important to clearly state what your ideas are in the first place, the ACT essay requires you to demonstrate evidence-based reasoning. As per the description on ACT.org [bolding mine]: Scores in this domain reflect the ability to discuss ideas, offer rationale, and bolster an argument. Competent writers explain and explore their ideas, discuss implications, and illustrate through examples. They help the reader understand their thinking about the issue. The bolded part is the aspect of the ACT Writing rubric that’s most changed from the old ACT essay. You must not only use logical reasoning, but also employ detailed examples to support and explain your ideas. Let’s say you’re discussing machine intelligence and are arguing Perspective Two: â€Å"Machines are good at low-skill, repetitive jobs, and at high-speed, extremely precise jobs. In both cases they work better than humans. This efficiency leads to a more prosperous and progressive world for everyone.† In your essay, you might start out by copying the perspective directly into your essay as your point of view, which is fine for the Ideas and Analysis domain. To score well in the Development and Support domain and develop your point of view with logical reasoning and detailed examples, however, you’re going to have to come up with reasons for why you agree with this perspective and examples that support your thinking. Here's an example from an essay that would score a 3 in this domain: Machines are good at low-skill, repetitive jobs and at high-speed, extremely precise jobs. In both cases, they work better than humans. For example, machines are better at printing things quickly and clearly than people are. Prior to the invention of the printing press by Gutenberg people had to write everything by hand. The printing press made it faster and easier to get things printed because things didn't have to be written by hand all the time. In the world today we have even better machines like laser printers that print things quickly. Essays scoring a 3 in this domain tend to have relatively simple development and tend to be overly general, with imprecise or repetitive reasoning or illustration. Contrast this with an example from an essay that would score a 6: Machines are good at low-skill, repetitive jobs and at high-speed, extremely precise jobs. In both cases, they work better than humans. Take, for instance, the example of printing. As a composer, I need to be able to create many copies of my sheet music to give to my musicians. If I were to copy out each part by hand, it would take days, and would most likely contain inaccuracies. On the other hand, my printer (a machine) is able to print out multiple copies of parts with extreme precision. If it turns out I made an error when I was entering in the sheet music onto the computer (another machine), I can easily correct this error and print out more copies quickly. The above example of the importance of machines to composers uses "an integrated line of skillful reasoning and illustration" to support my claim ("Machines are good at low-skill, repetitive jobs and at high-speed, extremely precise jobs. In both cases, they work better than humans"). In order to develop this example further (and incorporate the â€Å"This efficiency leads to a more prosperous and progressive world for everyone† facet of the perspective), I would need to expand my example to explain why it’s so important that multiple copies of precisely replicated documents be available, and how this affects the world. World Map - Abstract Acrylic by Nicolas Raymond, used under CC BY 2.0/Resized from original. Organization Essay organization has always been integral to doing well on the ACT essay, so it makes sense that the ACT Writing rubric has an entire domain devoted to this. The organization of your essay refers not just to the order in which you present your ideas in the essay, but also to the order in which you present your ideas in each paragraph. Here's the formal description from the ACT website: Scores in this domain reflect the ability to organize ideas with clarity and purpose. Organizational choices are integral to effective writing. Competent writers arrange their essay in a way that clearly shows the relationship between ideas, and they guide the reader through their discussion. Making sure your essay is logically organized relates back to the â€Å"development† part of the previous domain. As the above description states, you can't just throw examples and information into your essay willy-nilly, without any regard for the order; part of constructing and developing a convincing argument is making sure it flows logically. A lot of this organization should happen while you are in the planning phase, before you even begin to write your essay. Let's go back to the machine intelligence essay example again. I've decided to argue for Perspective Two, which is: â€Å"Machines are good at low-skill, repetitive jobs, and at high-speed, extremely precise jobs. In both cases they work better than humans. This efficiency leads to a more prosperous and progressive world for everyone.† An essay that scores a 3 in this domain would show a "basic organizational structure," which is to say that each perspective would be discussed in its own paragraph, "with most ideas logically grouped." A possible organization for a 3-scoring essay: Paragraph 1: Introduction (with your stated point of view) Paragraph 2: Intelligent machines don’t really challenge ideas about humanity (analyze perspective 1) Paragraph 3: On the other hand, intelligent machines can help us (analyze perspective 2) Paragraph 4: Machines are not making the world worse (analyze perspective 3) Paragraph 5: Conclusion An essay that scores a 6 in this domain, on the other hand, has a lot more to accomplish. The "controlling idea or purpose" behind the essay should be clearly expressed in every paragraph, and ideas should be ordered in a logical fashion so that there is a clear progression from the beginning to the end. Here's a possible organization for a 6-scoring essay: Paragraph 1: Introduction (with your stated point of view) Paragraph 2: Machines help us because [evidence] (discussion of perspective 2) Paragraph 3: Some argue that machines are hurting us, but here’s my contrary evidence (comparison of perspective 1 and perspective 2) Paragraph 4: While I do believe that machines are advantageous, this advantage lies in what they can do for us, not what they reveal about us (comparison of perspective 3 and perspective 2) Paragraph 5: Conclusion In this example, the unifying idea is that machines are helpful (and it’s mentioned in each paragraph) and the progression of ideas makes more sense. This is certainly not the only way to organize an essay on this particular topic, or even using this particular perspective. Your essay does, however, have to be organized, rather than consist of a bunch of ideas thrown together. Here are my Top 5 ACT Writing Organization Rules to follow: Be sure to include an introduction (with your thesis stating your point of view), paragraphs in which you make your case, and a conclusion that sums up your argument When planning your essay, make sure to present your ideas in an order that makes sense (and follows a logical progression that will be easy for the grader to follow). Make sure that you unify your essay with one main idea. Do not switch arguments partway through your essay. Don't write everything in one huge paragraph. If you're worried you're going to run out of space to write, you can try using a paragraph symbol,  ¶, at the beginning of each paragraph as a last resort (if you can't write smaller). Use transitions between paragraphs (usually the last line of the previous paragraph and the first line of the paragraph) to "strengthen relationships among ideas" (source). This means going above and beyond "First of all...Second...Lastly" at the beginning of each paragraph. Instead, use the transitions between paragraphs as an opportunity to describe how that paragraph relates to your main argument. Language Use The final domain on the ACT Writing rubric is Language Use. This the item that includes grammar, punctuation, and general sentence structure issues. Here's what the ACT website has to say about Language Use: Scores in this domain reflect the ability to use written language to convey arguments with clarity. Competent writers make use of the conventions of grammar, syntax, word usage, and mechanics. They are also aware of their audience and adjust the style and tone of their writing to communicate effectively. I tend to think of this as the â€Å"be a good writer† category, since many of the standards covered in the above description are ones that good writers will automatically meet in their writing. On the other hand, this is probably the area non-native English speakers will struggle the most, as you must have a fairly solid grasp of English to score above a 2 on this domain. The good news is that by reading this article, you're already one step closer to improving your "Language Use" on ACT Writing. There are three main parts of this domain: Grammar, Usage, and Mechanics Sentence Structure Vocabulary and Word Choice I've listed them (and will cover them) from lowest to highest level. If you're struggling with multiple areas, I highly recommend starting out with the lowest-level issue, as the components tend to build on each other. For instance, if you're struggling with grammar and usage, you need to focus on fixing that before you start to think about precision of vocabulary/word choice. Grammar, Usage, and Mechanics At the most basic level, you need to be able to "effectively communicate your ideas in standard written English" (ACT.org). First and foremost, this means that your grammar and punctuation need to be correct. On ACT Writing, it's all right to make a few minor errors if the meaning is clear, even on essays that score a 6 in the Language Use domain; however, the more errors you make, the more your score will drop. Here's an example from an essay that scored a 3 in Language Use: Machines are good at doing there jobs quickly and precisely. Also because machines aren't human or self-aware they don't get bored so they can do the same thing over over again without getting worse. While the meaning of the sentences is clear, there are several errors: the first sentence uses "there" instead of "their," the second sentence is a run-on sentence, and the second sentence also uses the abbreviation "" in place of "and." Now take a look at an example from a 6-scoring essay: Machines excel at performing their jobs both quickly and precisely. In addition, since machines are not self-aware they are unable to get "bored." This means that they can perform the same task over and over without a decrease in quality. This example solves the abbreviation and "there/their" issue. The second sentence is missing a comma (after "self-aware"), but the worse of the run-on sentence issue is absent. Our Complete Guide to ACT Grammar might be helpful if you just need a general refresh on grammar rules. In addition, we have several articles that focus in on specific grammar rules, as they are tested on ACT English; while the specific ways in which ACT English tests you on these rules isn't something you'll need to know, the explanations of the grammar rules themselves are quite helpful. Sentence Structure Once you've gotten down basic grammar, usage, and mechanics, you can turn your attention to sentence structure. Here's an example of what a 3-scoring essay in Language Use (based on sentence structure alone) might look like: Machines are more efficient than humans at many tasks. Machines are not causing us to lose our humanity. Instead, machines help us to be human by making things more efficient so that we can, for example, feed the needy with technological advances. The sentence structures in the above example are not particulary varied (two sentences in a row start with "Machines are"), and the last sentence has a very complicated/convoluted structure, which makes it hard to understand. For comparison, here's a 6-scoring essay: Machines are more efficient than humans at many tasks, but that does not mean that machines are causing us to lose our humanity. In fact, machines may even assist us in maintaining our humanity by providing more effective and efficient ways to feed the needy. For whatever reason, I find that when I’m under time pressure, my sentences maintain variety in their structures but up getting really awkward and strange. A real life example: once I described a method of counteracting dementia as â€Å"supporting persons of the elderly persuasion† during a hastily written psychology paper. I’ve found the best ways to counteract this are as follows: 1. Look over what you’ve written and change any weird wordings that you notice. 2. If you're just writing a practice essay, get a friend/teacher/relative who is good at writing (in English) to look over what you’ve written and point out issues (this is how my own awkward wording was caught before I handed in the paper). This point obviously does not apply when you're actually taking the ACT, but it very helpful to ask for someone else to take a look over any practice essays you write to point out issues you may not notice yourself. Vocabulary and Word Choice The icing on the "Language Use" domain cake is skilled use of vocabulary and correct word choice. Part of this means using more complicated vocabulary in your essay. Once more, look at this this example from a 3-scoring essay (spelling corrected): Machines are good at doing their jobs quickly and precisely. Compare that to this sentence from a 6-scoring essay: Machines excel at performing their jobs both quickly and precisely. The 6-scoring essay uses "excel" and "performing" in place of "are good at" and "doing." This is an example of using language that is both more skillful ("excel" is more advanced than "are good at") and more precise ("performing" is a more precise word than "doing"). It's important to make sure that, when you do use more advanced words, you use them correctly. Consider the below sentence: â€Å"Machines are often instrumental in ramifying safety features.† The sentence uses a couple of advanced vocabulary words, but since "ramifying" is used incorrectly, the language use in this sentence is neither skillful nor precise. Above all, your word choice and vocabulary should make your ideas clearer, not make them harder to understand. untitled is also an adjective by Procsilas Moscas, used under CC BY 2.0/Resized and cropped from original. How Do I Use the ACT Writing Grading Rubric? Okay, we've taken a look at the ACTual ACT Writing grading rubric and gone over each domain in detail. To finish up, I'll go over a couple of ways the scoring rubric can be useful to you in your ACT essay prep. Use the ACT Writing Rubric To...Shape Your Essays Now that you know what the ACT is looking for in an essay, you can use that to guide what you write about in your essays...and how develop and organize what you say! Because I’m an Oldâ„ ¢ (not actually trademarked), and because I'm from the East Coast, I didn’t really know much about the ACT prior to starting my job at PrepScholar. People didn’t really take it in my high school in my day, so when I looked at the grading rubric for the first time, I was shocked to see how different the ACT essay was (as compared to the more familiar SAT essay). Basically, by reading this article, you’re already doing better than high school me. Vale_Youth_Art_Project_100 by Bureau of Land Management Oregon and Washington, used under CC BY 2.0/Resized from original. An artist’s impression of L. Staffaroni (at age 16) (look, junior year was/is hard for everyone). Use the ACT Writing Rubric To...Grade Your Practice Essays The ACT can’t really give you an answer key to the essay the way it can give you an answer key to the other sections (Reading, Math, etc). There are some examples of essays at each score point on the ACT website, but these examples assume that students will be at an equal level in each of domains, which will not necessarily be true for you. Even if a sample essay is provided as part of a practice test answer key, it will probably use different context, have a different logical progression, or maybe even argue a different viewpoint. The ACT Writing rubric is the next best thing to an essay answer key. Use it as a filter through which to view your essay. Naturally, you don't have the time to become an expert at applying the rubric criteria to your essay to make sure you're in line with the ACT's grading principles and standards. That is not your job. Your job is to write the best essay that you can. If you're not confident in your ability to spot grammar, usage, and mechanics issues, I highly recommend asking a friend, teacher, or family member who is really good at (English) writing to take a look over your practice essays and point out the mistakes. If you really want custom feedback on your practice essays from experienced essay graders, may I also suggest the PrepScholar test prep platform? As I manage all essay grading, I happen to know a bit about the essay part of this platform, which provides you with both an essay grade and custom feedback. Go here to learn more! What’s Next? Desirous of some more sweet sweet ACT essay articles? Why not start with our comprehensive guide to the ACT Writing test and how to write an ACT essay, step-by-step? (Trick question: obviously you should do this.) Round out your dive into the details of the ACT Writing test with tips and strategies to raise your essay score, information about the best ACT Writing template, and advice on how to get a perfect score on the ACT essay. Want actual feedback on your essay? Then consider signing up for our PrepScholar test prep platform. Included in the platform are 5 practice tests, with 5 practice essays that are graded by experts here at PrepScholar. Want to improve your ACT score by 4 points? Check out our best-in-class online ACT prep program. 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Definition and Types of Illocutionary Force

Definition and Types of Illocutionary Force In speech-act theory, illocutionary force  refers to a speakers intention in delivering an utterance  or to the kind of illocutionary act the speaker is performing. Also known as an illocutionary function  or illocutionary point. In Syntax: Structure, Meaning, and Function (1997), Van Vallin and LaPolla state that illocutionary force refers to whether an utterance is an assertion, a question, a command or an expression of a wish. These are different types of illocutionary force, which means that we can talk about interrogative illocutionary force, imperative illocutionary force, optative illocutionary force, and declarative illocutionary force. The terms illocutionary act and illocutionary force were introduced by British linguistic philosopher John L. Austin in How to Do Things With Words (1962). Examples and Observations Illocutionary Act and Illocutionary Force [A]n illocutionary act refers to the type of function a speaker intends to accomplish in the course of producing an utterance. It is an act accomplished in speaking and defined within a system of social conventions. Thus, if John says to Mary Pass me the glasses, please, he performs the illocutionary act of requesting or ordering Mary to hand the glasses over to him. The functions or actions just mentioned are also referred to as the illocutionary force or illocutionary point of the speech act. The illocutionary force of a speech act is the effect a speech act is intended to have by a speaker. Indeed, the term speech act in its narrow sense is often taken to refer specifically to illocutionary act.(Yan Huang, The Oxford Dictionary of Pragmatics. Oxford University Press, 2012) Illocutionary Force Indicating Devices There are different devices used to indicate how an illocutionary force must be interpreted. For example, Open the door and Could you open the door have the same propositional content (open the door), but they represent different illocutionary acts- an order and a request respectively. These devices that aid the hearer in identifying the illocutionary force of the utterance are referred to as the illocutionary force indicating devices or IFIDs [also called illocutionary force markers]. Performative verbs, mood, word order, intonation, stress are examples of IFIDs.(Elizabeth Flores Salgado,  The Pragmatics of Requests and Apologies. John Benjamins, 2011) I may indicate the kind of illocutionary act I am performing by beginning the sentence with I apologize, I warn, I state, etc. Often, in actual speech situations, the context will make it clear what the illocutionary force of the utterance is, without its being necessary to invoke the appropriate explicit illocutionary force indicator.(John R. Searle,  Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. Cambridge University Press, 1969) I Was Just Saying That Kenneth Parcell: Im sorry, Mr. Jordan. Im just overworked. With my page duties and being Mr. Donaghys assistant, theres not enough hours in the day.Tracy Jordan: Im sorry about that. But just let me know if theres any way I can help.Kenneth: Actually, there is one thing...Tracy: No! I was just saying that! Why cant you read human facial cues (Jack McBrayer and Tracy Morgan, Cutbacks. 30 Rock, April 9, 2009) Pragmatic Competence Achieving pragmatic competence involves the ability to understand the illocutionary force of an utterance, that is, what a speaker intends by making it. This is particularly important in cross-cultural encounters since the same form (e.g. When are you leaving?) can vary in its illocutionary force depending on the context in which it is made (e.g. May I have a ride with you? or Dont you think it is time for you to go?).(Sandra Lee McKay, Teaching English as an International Language. Oxford University Press, 2002) What I Really Mean When I say how are you to a co-worker, I really mean hello. Although I know what I mean by how are you, it is possible that the receiver does not know that I mean hello and actually proceeds to give me a fifteen-minute discourse on his various maladies.(George Ritzer, Sociology: A Multiple Paradigm Science. Allyn Bacon, 1980)

How has gender inequality been explained (Answer with reference to a Essay

How has gender inequality been explained (Answer with reference to a range of theories and approaches) Critically assess the at - Essay Example It is from the conflict school that feminism emerged. Feminist movements seek to address the â€Å"oppression† of women. Actually, there are also articulations that describe an interaction among class, race, and gender but, unfortunately, this is not covered by this write-up. Moreover, there are ecofeminists that are radical as well as environmental but this is also not covered by this report. II. Perspective on Gender Inequality: Theories and Approaches Macionis and Plummer (2008, pp. 615-616) pointed out that functionalist perspectives on sociology describe gender inequality as fulfilling a function of set of functions in society. They cited, for instance, that a leading functionalist sociologist, Talcott Parsons, pointed out that â€Å"the family operates most efficiently with a clear-cut division of labour in which the females act in expressive roles, providing care and security to children and offering them emotional support† (Macionis and Plummer 2008, p. 615). Fo r Parsons, male on the other hand perform instrumental roles or those related to breadwinning in the family (Macionis and Plummer 2008, p. 615). John Bowlby, another functionalist sociologist emphasized the role of the mother is in the primary socialization of the children (Macionis and Plummer 2008, p. 615). Macionis and Plummer (2008, p. ... According to Macionis and Plummer (2008, p. 617), radical feminists vary in perspectives but â€Å"most agree that it involves the appropriation of women’s bodies and sexuality in some form†. For instance, the usual conceptions of beauty and sexuality are supposedly impositions on women by men at the latter create or construct a particular notion of what is feminine and impose it on society. Beasley (1999, p. 51-64) pointed out that there are several types of feminism: liberal, radical, Marxist/socialist, and socialist feminism. According to Beasley, liberal feminism is the more popular form of feminism (p. 51). Beasley (1999, p. 51) described that this form of feminism is the â€Å"moderate† or the â€Å"mainstream† form of feminism. In the liberal feminism, the explanation for gender inequality is described in terms of unequal rights or â€Å"artificial barriers† to women’s participation in the political or decision-making process. In the l iberal feminist thought, there is an emphasis on mainstreaming or putting the feminist agenda for equal rights on the legal, political and institutional fronts (Beasley 1999, p. 51). According to Beasley (1999, p. 51), the position of liberal feminists is that women should â€Å"compete in the public marketplace† (Beasley 1999, p. 51). For liberal feminists, equality of women with men in the public arena is the core of the liberal feminist agenda (Beasley 1999, p. 52). The liberal feminists hold that men and women are the same and, thus, have equal rights (Beasley 1999, p. 52). Liberal feminists emphasized on reform rather than change via a revolution (Beasley 1999, p. 52). In Beasley’s words (1999, p. 52), liberal feminists â€Å"want what

Module 4 Case Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Module 4 Case - Assignment Example Clorox is an international company with various popular brands for use in households with products for bleach and cleaning. Brands like Green Works provides various products of cleaning, Ayudin and Poett offer home care products, Kingsford’s charcoal, Hidden Valley and K C Masterpiece’s sauces and dressings, Brita provides water filtration products, dilutable cleaner from Pine-Sol, cat litter from Fresh Step, Glad Bags offers containers and wraps and personal care products are provided by Burt’s Bees. The company manufactures various products in more than 24 countries and products are sold in 100 countries (The Clorox Company, 2014). Alaska Air Group, Inc. is a holding company of Alaska Airlines and Horizon air. It is a Seattle based company which serves more than 90 places in the United States, Mexico and Canada. It was founded as Delaware company in 1985. It offers the customers to book flights, cars, vacation packages, hotels and to check route maps and schedule of flights. It also offers lucrative packages in destination like Hawaii, Las Vegas, Disneyland and Mexico (Alaska Airlines, 2014). According to the balance sheet of the company the current assets of the company is $23284 million in the year 2013, and in 2012 it was $21398 million. The long term asset of the company is $18204 million in 2013, and in 2012 it was $15675 million (Bloomberg, 2014). The total current asset of the company is $1420 million in 2013 and in the year 2012 it was $1376 million. The long term asset of the company is $2891 million in the year 2013 and in 2012 it was $2979 million (Bloomberg, 2014). The total current asset of the company is $1762 million in the year 2013 and in the year 2012 it was $1737 million. The long term asset of the company is $4076 million in the year 2013 and in the year 2012 it was $3768 million (Bloomberg, 2014). According to the balance sheet of the company the current